Rice wines in General
Rice wines ("Huang Jiu in Chinese alphabetic writing, and "Huang" meaning "yellow" in color ) are fermented alcoholic drinks produced from cereals with wheat QU or XIAO QU used as saccharifying and fermenting agents. They may have other traditional names in some regions, for example, "Lao Jiu" (aged rice wine) in Jiangsu Province, Zhejiang Province; "Shui Jji" (dilluted rice wine) In Jiangxi Province; "Chou Jiu" in Shangxi Province.
According to the latest nomenclature, Rice wines are general designation for all the fermented drinks produced from cereals. This category ranges from very primitive rice wine to highly sophisticated Shaoxing Rice Wine. Rice wines are usually yellow, red, brown or black in color; and they may be clarified into liquid, or turbidly suspended liquid; even they may be semi-solid, unfiltered mash ( "JIU NIANG").
The Chinese have taken great pride in their rice wines all the time. The best rice wines are produced by traditional natural fermentation methods and sold without additives. Many such varieties are now available throughout the world. Most rice wines were prepared at domestically in ancient times. However rice wines are now manufactured commercially in modernized rice breweries by professional craftsmen on a large scale. The rice wines are being marketed in Hong Kong, Japan and the other countries and regions in South-east Asia.
The maximum percentage of alcohol in original pure rice wine is below 20 %, usually 15%-16%. It needs about 3 months from polishing of rice to pasteurization of rice wine before packaging. The rice wine maturation after being pasteurized varies place to place, usually from six months to 1 year. About 230 kgs of pure rice wine can be produced from 100 kg of rice.
Classification
There are several classification systems to classify the rice wines. Rice wines can be classified according to the production methods, the residual sugar content, and the sacchrification and fermenting agents used. But the most commonly used classification divides all rice wines into five types according to their residual sugar in the rice wines (Standard Classification ).
Formal Classification
There are five basic types of rice wines, mainly according to their brewing methods and their residual sugar in them, That is: dry type, semi-dry type, semi-sweet type, sweet type and Extra -sweet type. The specifications of each type are listed in following Chapters.
Classification according to the production methods
(1) LING FAN JIU ( in Chinese pronuanciation): the feature of the procedure for making LING FAN JIU is to cool the steamed rice with cold water drenching through it, after that, the cooled rice is mixed with starters (Xiao Qu ), then the saccharification begins. Usually, LING FAN JIU is used as starter for inoculating main mash. Of course, it also can be drunk after fermentation for several days.
(2) TANG FAN JIU: the characteristic of its process is to cool the hot steamed rice by air after spreading it onto bamboo raft before mixing with wheat QU, starters and acidified rice-steeping liquid.
(3) WEI FAN JIU: this type of rice wine is produced with the fed -batch fermentation method, that is, the steamed rice is added intermittently during the fermentation period, ussally in three batches.
(4) Fortified rice wines: for making fortified rice wines, aged rice wines or spirits distilled from rice wine fermented with XIAO QU) are usually added to the main mash before the main fermentation is ceased. In this case, the final alcohol concentrations of the fortified rice wines reached to above 20%. Because of such high concentrations of ethanol, the microorganisms in the mash are inhibited, the saccharification of dextrin remaining in the main mash into sugar is carried out slowly, resulting high content residual sugar in the fortified rice wines.
Classifying According to the Sacchrifying and Fermenting Agents Used
The rice wines are produced with Jiu Qu. There are various types of Jiu Qu, such as the uncooked wheat Qu ( Sheng Mai Qu), cooked wheat Qu (Shu Mai Qu), Xiao Qu, red rice (ANGKAK), Wu Yi Hong Qu, or commercially manufactured enzymes. The rice wines occasionally are named according to the types of Qu used.
Utilization of Rice Wines
Rice wines had been the most popular alcoholic drinks for Chinese in ancient times, and are still one of the popular alcoholic beverages, especially in South China. Rice wines are popular among all classes of the native population. They are consumed in very large quantities during festivals, at social gathering, especially in winter. They are served on holidays and at wedding ceremonies in the homes of country people as well as urban dwellers. They are normally warmed to about 35 to 40 ¡æ.
As rice wines contain rich nutrients, they are good for bringing up a good appetite and good health upon regular drinking in suitable amounts. They can also be used as a cooking additive to relieve stinking and make dishes more delicious. In addition, they are good ingredients to be added to increase the efficiency of Chinese medicine, which can stimulate the blood circulation and keep the muscles relaxed. In ancient times, the rice wine was considered as "the best of all medicines". A large amount of healthy alcoholic drinks are based on rice wines. The herbs may be added to the fermenting mash, and the effective components are extracted during the fermenting process; or the herbs are steeped in finished rice wines and then healthy rice wine is aged for a long time.
Chemical compositions of the rice wines
Analyses show that the rice wines (the rice wines produced in Shaoxing as an example) contain 21 varieties of amino acids, 9 varieties of organic acids, over 10 varieties of esters, and various vitamines. Ethanol contents are usually between 15-20% (v/v).
Development History of Rice Wine Brewing Technology
The origin of cultivation of crops is known through legends and tradition. But latest evidences prove that our ancestors began to plant rice 18,000-22,000 years ago for the remained rice has been excavated from Hunang Province recently. The techniques for making rice wines were known to the Chinese before 5000 B.C. The Chinese had pioneered in the Orient for centuries, and the brewing techniques based wheat Qu and Xiao Qu have been considered to be a typical model in biotechnology.
It have been reviewed and discussed varieties of standpoints on the origin of alcoholic beverages in China, and in this section, we shall review in detail the development history of technology in the field of alcoholic beverages, with the emphasis on rice wine brewing technology.
Historical Development of Rice Wine Brewing TechnologyRice wine- making Technology before Hang Dynasty ( from prehistoric times to 206 B.C.) The means of production the primitive men relied on for existence at the begining were collecting and hunting. Up to the prosperous period of the matriachal society, with primitive agriculture and animal husbandry as the main method, collecting and hunting receded into a secondary stage. Alcoholic drinks made from fruits or milk might be accidently consumed by primitive men, so they might be the primitive alcoholic drinks. Early rice wine-brewing techniques before Xia Dynasty (21th century B.C.- 16th century B.C.) were not well recorded. However, We found the first reference to the existence of this rice wine in the "Jia Gu Wen" (inscriptions on bones or tortoise shells of Shang Dynasty, c. 16th-11th century B.C.). At least three types of alcoholic drinks made from cereals were mentioned in the Jia Gu Wen. "Jiu" was propably made from cereals which have been saccharified and fermented by Jiu Qu ; "LI" was obvious made from malted cereals and was similar to primitive beer; and "Chang", was a kind of quality rice wine flavoured by adding tulip.
The oldest written reference to the use of Jiu Qu for making rice wine dated back to Zhou Dynasty. In the classic work of the Confucianists ( a school of thought in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods 770-221 B.C.), the King said: if you want to make Jiu, you should use Qu; and if you want to make LI, you should use malt. In Warring States Periods, the Qu was used as a kind of medicine to treat diarrhoea and abdominal distension. Obviously, the hydrolytic enzymes in the Qu have the function of facilitating digestion.
In Zhou Dynasty, The imperial court had set up management organization to supervise the production and consumption of alcoholic beverages for the imperial family and for the sacrificial to gods or ancestors. A government administration body ( "Jiu Zheng") was responsible for the raw material supply, and the techniques for making alcoholic beverages. It is worth mentioning here that they had set up a series of regulations for alcoholic beverage production. In the regulations, it was emphasized that the cereals (raw materials ) should be as good as possible, the Jiu Qu should be delivered in time, brew masters should pay close attention to hygiene during brewing processes, the water should be fresh and clarified, the jars (or vats) should be perfect, the cereals should be cooked properly.
One of the rich references to the rice wines appears in the < >, an extraordinary collection of hundreds of poems recorded from as early as the Western Zhou Dynasty and compiled in Spring and Autumn Period (770 B.C. - 476 B.C.). Many names for alcoholic drinks were recorded in << Shi Jing>>: such as Jiu, Li, Chang, Huang Liu (Yellow fluid), Chun Jiu ( rice wine produced in winter and consumed in Spring), Zhi Jiu ( smooth rice wine), Qing Jiu ( clarified rice wine due to long time aging ), and Ru ( rich and mellow rice wine).
It is generally agreed that the first fortified rice wine (called "Zhou") was brewed before Hang Dynasty, "Zhou" was brewed by adding aged rice wine into the fermenting mash in three batches. Another evidence describing the preparation procedure for healthy drinks from the pre-Qin books recorded on silk has been excavated from ancient tombs in Changsha, Hunang Province( Ma Wang Dui) . The preparation procedures for the healthy drink are summarized as follows:
Jiu Qu (two kinds) Rice Chinese herbs
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Filtration Steaming Steeping and cooking
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Fermentation
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Adding aged rice wine (three batchs)
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Healthy drink
We suppose that the so called "Zhou" might be produced in this way, because the recored description on the manufacture of "Zhou" in other ancient book << Xi Jing Zha Ji>> is in accordance with the procedure mentioned above. As stated earlier, the early liqueuos were termed "Chang", they were modified and improved to become medically valuable drinks.
Rice Wine- making Technology from Hang Dynasty to Northern and Southern Dynasties (the period of 206 B.C.- 581 A.D.)
The First Emperor of Qin Dynasty unified all parts of China in 221 B.C. Rice wines were limitedly produced because the goverment did not encourage consuming large amounts of cereals for production of alcoholic drinks. Even at the begining of Western Han Dynasty, according to the law,if three persons were found drinking together, they would be imposed a fine.
Prior to Emperor Han Wu Di in power, agriculture had developed rapidly, crops gained bumper harvests for years running, and people had plenty of food and clothing. Overproduction of crops resulted in vigorous springing up of alcoholic beverage production and business. During the period of Emperor Han Wu Di in power, the government met with financial deficits due to warfare year after year, a minister in charge of finance felt that most of the profit in the rice wine brewing industry had been taken away by the rich and powerful people who engaged in the rice wine industry, and the great profit was a good supply for military expenditure. This situation obviously should be changed. So, Emperor Han Wu Di issued an imperial edict in 98 B. C. From this time on, the government made a monopoly of alcoholic drinks. Privately produced rice wines were forbidden. Before that, the salt and iron had already been the monopolied goods. The establishment of the Bureau for the regulation of production, trade, and taxation of alcoholic drinks, that is, monopoly of alcoholic beverages might be the most important event in the history of brewing industry and trade.
Rice wine-making with Qu as saccharifying and fermenting agents must have been the dominant method for manufacture of alcoholic beverages in Han Dynasty. Low alcohol drinks (called "LI") made from malt might sometimes be brewed.
The first monopoly of alcoholic drinks was abolished in 81 B.C. due to objection mainly from the rich and powerful people who had engaged in the rice wine industry previously. But records of about 10 B. C. show that it had been resumed, and the government ( Wang Mang was in power)established a organization system in charge of alcoholic drink production and business. Each rice wine brewery manufactured rice wine in accordance with the stipulated recipes issued by the government. The recipe stated: Using two "Hu" of croase grain and one "Hu" of wheat Qu as raw materials, 6.6 "Hu" of rice wine could be obtained. ( "Hu" was a measuring unit at that time, and one "Hu" was equal to 19.81 litres ).
The fed-batch fermentation process might be invented in Eastern Hang Dynasty. Cao Cao (155-220 A.D., the Prime Minister of East Han Dynasty) recommended this technique to the Emperor, Han Xian Di. In his memorial to the throne, Cao Cao described a particular method for brewing rice wine in which the steamed rice was intermittently added to the fermenting mash in 9 batches at an interval of 3 days. The rice wine manufactured in this method was mellow and rich.
A number of written records and stone relic in East Han Dynasty show situations of brewing industry. The whole brewing processes were vividly showed in a stone relic extravated from Shan Dong Province.
A book entitled by Jia Shixiewas was published in around 600 A.D., in which the techniques for preparing the different varieties of fermented foods were described in detail. These included alcoholic drinks, vinegars and numerous varieties of Jiang (soysauce and miso). It is worth mentioning that < < Qimin Yaoshu>>, the 6th-century encyclopedia, in its ten volumes the operating procedures for more than 40 varieties of alcoholic drinks being described in detail, and at least three types of wheat Qu were mentioned in this book. We think this classical book had collected and systematically summarized the brewing technology developed during the historic period from Han Dynasty to the 6th century. Obviously, plenty of the earliest researches and developments were carried out by common people. That the Chinese had developed various forms of brewing processes which depended upon a rather sophisticated technology and intuitive understanding of microbiology was a remarkable achievement in the early history of China. The books' detailed description of Jiu Qu preparation indicated that the basic techniques for preparing Jiu Qu had been established several centuries before. Rice wines mentioned in < < Qi MIng Yao Shu> > were greatly diversified, yet all the 40 or more varieties were generally brewed using Jiu Qu as saccharifying and fermenting agents.
The most high quality rice wine might be "Zhou" made from millet. The millet flour was steamed, then cooled, and mixed with Qu powder. Fermentation is conducted in solid state at a low temperature for almost 1 year. Rice wine brewing usually started from cold months ( from 10th month-12th month according to the Chinese lunar calendar ) . There existed also quickly-fermented rice wines, the fermentation time being only one night.
In << Qi Min Yao shu>>, Jia Shixie put forward a new concept which could explain why the raw materials (cereals) could be converted into the rice wine. He thought: there were complicated relationships among the product (the ethanol sternth of rice wine), raw materials (rice or millet ) and the mysterious fermenting power from Jiu Qu existing in the fermenting mash (which may be explained as fermenting ability of the Jiu Qu). At the beginning, the power of Jiu Qu is the most strong, so the fermentation was quickly undergoing; When the power of the Jiu Qu existing in fermenting mash was strong enough, the steamed rice or millet could be added into the fermenting mash continuously, and the fermentation will continue. The power of the Jiu Qu would decrease with the fermentation process going on. As in this case, steamed rice should not be added into the fermenting mash. According to Jia Shixie' saying, it was easy to know how strong the power of the Jiu Qu it was: Just carefully to observe the bubbles evolved from the fermenting mash. Jia Shixie might be the first person to realize the fermentation kinetic relationship among the products, the substrate (raw materials) and the fermenting ability.
Jia Shixie summarized the most important factors affecting the quality of rice wines during rice wine fermentation. He thought the following aspects should be paid much attention to. The quality of raw materials: usually glutinous millet or glutinous rice were considered as best raw materials for rice wines .The cereals should be washed again and again, until the effluent washing water became clear. The quality of Jiu Qu: the Qu used should at least stored for a few months, otherwise, the fermentation was too vigrous and quickly under usual conditions.
Use of proper fermentation container: the key piece of equipment in rice wine brewing was the vat. The ideal medium-scale vat was made of glazed or non-porous clayware and has a wide mouth. The vat should be washed with clean water several times,and before being used, the vat should be fumigated with fire, and finally was coated with fats or oil to prevent it from leaking.
Maintenance of a clean environment during preparation of Qu and rice wines: women were not allowed to participate in the practice during the fermentation period the water should be very clean, the equipments should be washed throughly before using. Control of fermentation conditions, especially temperature before and during fermentation.
Fermentation time: for best results, rice wines should be made during the cold months when the air was relatively free of contaminating microorganisms. Late November or early March were the best times for preparing rice wines since the weather was cold but not too cold.
Rice Wine-making Technology from Tang Dynasty (618- 907) to Southern Song Dynasty (1127- 1279)
In the history of China, The period of Tang Dynasty (especially in the earlier and middle periods) had been thriving and prosperous. The alcoholic beverage industry was flourishing with the bumper grain harvest. The City of Chang'an in Tang Dynasty had been the political and cultural center of the whole nation and a famous metropolis in the world. Writings and Poetry in Tang Dynasty recorded that wine shops scattered along the streets and lanes selling various alcoholic drinks. Every household brewed rice wines for their own consumption. Emperor Tang Taizhong was very fond of wine making, and learned the techniques of plantation of grapes and wine making from the Western part of China and made 7 varieties of wines himself in the Palace. According to the historic records, there were 13 varieties of alcoholic drinks being considered as famous drinks.
A lots of books dealing with brewing technology were written in Tang Dynasty, but few had been handed down. Nevertheless, numerous poems written then gave us plenty of hints and information about alcoholic drink-making techniques. Tang Dynasty poet Yong Tao wrote: " Since I arrived in Chengdu, the `SHAO Jiu' has matured, and no longer do I wish to reture to the capital Chang'an". Whether the "SHAO Jiu' mentioned above was a distilled spirit is still a matter in dispute. "JIANNAN SHAO CHUN", a tribute to the Imperial Palace, made in Sichuang Province, recorded in a historic book, also left an unsolved question about the origin of distilled spirit, for the word "SHAO" is a polysemant in Chines, meaning "steaming", "cooking", "distillation" and bruning.
In Song Dynasty, because of the transferring of political, cultural and economic center from North China to South China, rice wine- making industry had flourishing in South China, especially in the region of Southeast China, around Hang Zhou, which used to be the capital of Southern Song Dynasty. This area is the most suitable for growing rice. For raising more military expenditure to resist the invasion by Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 A.D.), the government put into effect the policy of monopoly of production and sale of alcoholic drinks, and encouraged people to consume rice wines. Of course, the government benefited considerably from the brewing industry. A more comprehensive book entitled <> detailing the techniques for rice wine brewing was written by Zhu Hong in around 1100 A. D. The author (used to be a doctor) combined his knowledge as a medical practitioner with many years' experience of rice wine making, gave a clear, concise account of Qu-making and rice wine brewing processes, and expounded brilliantly the science and technology in brewing, resulting a comprehensive guide to making high quality rice wines. It is generally accepted that << BEI SANG Jiu JIN>> was another classical book on the rice wine-making technology following the << QI MIN YAO SHU>>. It was obvious that Chinese craftsmen had raised the practice of rice wine -making to the level of a fine art.
This three-volumns classic books contains following aspects: (1) a brief history of alcoholic drinks in Chinese culture; ( 2) the fundemental brewing technology and easy- to- follow instructions for making rice wines at home and on a community scale, including the techniques in Jiu Qu- making, fermentation and post- fermentation processes; (3) the particular operating procedures for production of high-quality rice wines.
The techniques used for making rice wines described in this book will be discussed in following chapters.
We have studied and summarized the achievements in rice wine brewing technology shown in the classic work. Obviously, owing to the social development and accumulation of experiences and knowledge in rice wine-making industry for over 500 hundreds years more, rice wine brew masters in Song Dynasty had attained perfection in rice wine brewing technology. It was found that the basic techniques and methods described by Zhu Hong in this book for making rice wines were obviously more advanced than that described. In about 18th century, or 700 years later, the techniques described in a book entitled written by a businessman in Qing Dynasty recorded almost the same as that in << Bei San Jiu Jing>>. It can be concluded that the traditional brewing techniques and process in Qing Dynasty remained nearly at the same level as in Song Dynasty. It seems that the traditional brewing technology based on natural fermentation ,characterized by knowing little about microorganisms and metabolic pathways, could not make a breakthrough in ancient times.
Rice Wine-making Technology from Yuan Dynasty (1115 - 1368) to Qing Dynasty (1644- 1911)
As the techniques of distillation developing before Song Dynasty had spread quickly all over China, and the grape wine production was in vogue in Yuan Dynasty, rice wine production and consumption gradually shrank to limited areas mainly in the Southeast China. But rice wines were preferred to distilled beverages by noble class in Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty, because of the low quality of distilled spirits at that times.
The output of rice wines in Southeast China might exceeded that in North China in this historic period. Gradually, rice wine production was centered in Zhejiang Province, Jiangsu Province, Jiangxi Province, Fujian Province. Especially, rice wines produced in Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province had become the most famous and began to export to foreign countries since Ming Dynasty. "Shaoxing Rice Wines" even became the synonym for "rice wines", and their prices were higher than those of spirits. "Shaoxing rice wine" had its best time since Qing Dynasty when there were numerous wineshops in towns. Most rice wines were transported over a great distance to the markets all over China. It was estimated that there were once as many as 2000 wineshops, and that the highest annual output reached up to about 70,000 tons in the late Qing Dynasty. This situations reappeared during 1930's of the 20th century.
Fortunately, an original manuscript entitled << Tiao Ding Ji> > was rediscovered from Beijing Library and republished in 1986, in which Shaoxing rice wine brewing technology was recorded in detail. From this book, we can find numerous information about Shaoxing rice wines, including production techniques, varieties of alcoholic beverages, market and tax revenue, and other industry related with rice wine production.
<< Tiao Ding Ji>> gave us a comprehensive summing-up on Shaoxing rice wines. The main contents included: selection of suitable water supply; selection of raw materials such as rice , wheat; Qu- making techniques; seed mash preparation, pretreatment of raw materials; ingredients of the fermentation mash; control of fermentation; squeezing; distillation of spent grains; pasteurization; comprehensive utilization of by-products; preventing the rice wines from being deteriorated; aging; the brewing and distillation equipment; how to repair the ceramic vats, etc. As already stated, traditional brewing techniques and basic processes in Qing Dynasty remained nearly at the same level as in Song Dynasty, however, the equipment was being perfected and the brew masters constantly improved their skills. The Chinese brew masters have established independently an intergrated brewing industrial system in a traditional way. Detailed discussion are given in following Chapters.
